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<text>NASA's Viking 1 Orbiter spacecraft photographed this region in the northern latitudes of Mars on July 25, 1976 while searching for a landing site for the Viking 2 Lander. The speckled appearance of the image is due to missing data, called bit errors, caused by problems in transmission of the photographic data from Mars to Earth. Bit errors ,comprise part of one of the "eyes" and "nostrils" on the eroded rock that resembles a human face near the center of the image. Shadows in the rock formation give the illusion of a nose and mouth. Planetary geologists attribute the origin of the formation to purely natural processes. The feature is 1.5 kilometers (one mile) across, with the sun angle at approximately 20 degrees. The picture was taken from a range of 1,873 kilometers (1,162 miles).t</text>
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<text>This typical Martian impact crater assumes a familiar face through the addition of a few added natural features. The smiling mouth and the eyes are formed by fractures caused by the original meteor impact. The main crater is about 8 kilometers (miles) in diameter, making it another major Martian discovery--the largest known Happy Face in the solar system.</text>
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<text>This high resolution color photo of the surface of Mars was taken by Viking Lander 2 at its Utopia Planitia landing site on May 18, 1979, and relayed to Earth by Orbiter 1 on June 7. It shows a thin coating of water ice on the rocks and soil. The time the frost appeared corresponds almost exactly with the buildup of frost one Martian year (23 Earth months) ago. Then it remained on the surface for about 100 days. Scientists believe dust particles in the atmosphere pick up bits of solid water. That combination is not heavy enough to settle to the ground. But carbon dioxide, which makes up 95 per cent of the Martian atmosphere, freezes and adheres to the particles and they become heavy enough to sink. Warmed by the Sun, the surface evaporates the carbon dioxide and returns to the atmosphere, leaving behind the water and dust. The ice seen in this picture, like that which formed one Martian year ago, is extremely thin, perhaps no more than one-thousandth of an inch thick.</text>
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<text>The rocky Martian plain surrounding Viking 2 is seen in high resolution in this 85-degree panorama sweeping from north at the left to east at right during the Martian afternoon on September 5. Large blocks litter the surface. Some are porous, sponge-like rocks like the one at the left edge (size estimate: 11/2 to 2 feet); others are dense and fine-grained, such as the very bright rounded block (1 to 1 1/2 feet across) toward lower right. Pebbled surface between the rocks is covered in places by small drifts of very fine material similar to drifts seen at the Viking 1 landing site some 4600 miles to the southwest. The fine-grained material is banked up behind some rocks, but wind tails seen by Viking 1 are not well developed here. On the right horizon, flat-topped ridges or hills are illuminated by the afternoon sun. Slope of the horizon is due to the 8-degree tilt of the spacecraft.</text>
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<text>The rocky Martian plain surrounding Viking 2 is seen in high resolution in this 85-degree panorama sweeping from north at the left to east at right during the Martian afternoon on September 5. Large blocks litter the surface. Some are porous, sponge-like rocks like the one at the left edge (size estimate: 11/2 to 2 feet); others are dense and fine-grained, such as the very bright rounded block (1 to 1 1/2 feet across) toward lower right. Pebbled surface between the rocks is covered in places by small drifts of very fine material similar to drifts seen at the Viking 1 landing site some 4600 miles to the southwest. The fine-grained material is banked up behind some rocks, but wind tails seen by Viking 1 are not well developed here. On the right horizon, flat-topped ridges or hills are illuminated by the afternoon sun. Slope of the horizon is due to the 8-degree tilt of the spacecraft.</text>
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<text>The very bright south polar residual cap, which probably consists of carbon dioxide ice. (The south polar cap is much brighter than the north polar cap, but is saturated in these photographic products.)About 1000 Viking Orbiter red- and violet-filter images have been processed to provide global color coverage of Mars at a scale of 1 km/pixel. Individual image frames acquired during a single spacecraft revolution were first processed through radiometric calibration, cosmetic cleanup, geometric control, reprojection, and mosaicing. We have produced a total of 57 "single-rev" mosaics. Phase angles range from 13x to 85x. All of the mosaics are geometrically tied to the Mars Digital Image Mosaic, a black-and-white base map with a scale of 231 m/pixel. We selected a subset of single-rev mosaics that provide the best global coverage (least atmospheric obscuration and seasonal frost); photometric normalization was applied to remove atmospheric effects and normalize the variations in illumination and viewing angles. Finally, these normalized mosaics were combined into global mosaics. Global coverage is about 98% complete in the red-filter mosaic and 95% complete in the violet-filter mosaic. Gaps were filled by interpolation. A green-filter image was synthesized from an average of the red- and violet-filter data to complete a 3-color set. The Viking Orbiters acquired actual green-filter images for only about half of the Martian surface.The final mosaics have been reprojected into several map projections: Sinusoidal Equal-Area (global), Lambertian Equal Area (east- and west-hemisphere views), Polar Stereographic (1/2 planet views of the northern and southern hemispheres), Mercator (equatorial region), and Orthographic views centered on 6 different positions on the Martian surface. The Orthographic views are most like those seen by a distant observer looking through a telescope. All versions exist both with and without latitude-longitude overlays.</text>
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<text>The bright north polar residual cap, consists of water ice mixed with dust.About 1000 Viking Orbiter red- and violet-filter images have been processed to provide global color coverage of Mars at a scale of 1 km/pixel. Individual image frames acquired during a single spacecraft revolution were first processed through radiometric calibration, cosmetic cleanup, geometric control, reprojection, and mosaicing. We have produced a total of 57 "single-rev" mosaics. Phase angles range from 13x to 85x. All of the mosaics are geometrically tied to the Mars Digital Image Mosaic, a black-and-white base map with a scale of 231 m/pixel. We selected a subset of single-rev mosaics that provide the best global coverage (least atmospheric obscuration and seasonal frost); photometric normalization was applied to remove atmospheric effects and normalize the variations in illumination and viewing angles. Finally, these normalized mosaics were combined into global mosaics. Global coverage is about 98% complete in the red-filter mosaic and 95% complete in the violet-filter mosaic. Gaps were filled by interpolation. A green-filter image was synthesized from an average of the red- and violet-filter data to complete a 3-color set. The Viking Orbiters acquired actual green-filter images for only about half of the Martian surface.The final mosaics have been reprojected into several map projections: Sinusoidal Equal-Area (global), Lambertian Equal Area (east- and west-hemisphere views), Polar Stereographic (1/2 planet views of the northern and southern hemispheres), Mercator (equatorial region), and Orthographic views centered on 6 different positions on the Martian surface. The Orthographic views are most like those seen by a distant observer looking through a telescope. All versions exist both with and without latitude-longitude overlays.</text>
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<text> Ancient river channels cut the cratered highlands. (North is to the left.) Viking Orbiter picture numbers are:451S01-09, 452S01-06, 454S09-12. Image-processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>This scene covers the boundary scarp between the ancient cratered highlands and the northern plains of Mars over an area west of Mangala Valles (latitude -8 degrees to -4 degrees, longitude 156 degrees to 159 degrees). The sedimentary deposits north of the highlands in Amazonis Planitia may consist of pyroclastic rocks or paleo-polar deposits. Ancient river channels cut the cratered highlands. </text>
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<text>This scene covers the boundary scarp between the ancient cratered highlands and the northern plains of Mars over an area east of West Mangala Valles (latitude -8 to -4 degrees, longitude 156 to 159 degrees).The sedimentary deposits north of the highlands in Amazonis Planitia may consist of pyroclastic rocks or paleo-polar deposits.</text>
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<text>This scene covers the boundary scarp between the ancient cratered highlands and the northern plains of Mars over an area east of Mangala Valles (latitude -7 to -3 degrees, longitude 146 degrees to 149 degrees).Ancient river channels run north through the ancient cratered highlands, but are covered north of the scarp by young lava floes. The large impact crater just north of the scarp shows floe-like ejecta lobes, which may form due to the presence of subsurface water or ice. Viking Orbiter picture numbers are: 455S09-17,456S13-20, 457S16-20. Image-processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>This mosaic is composed of about 50 about 50 red, green and violet filter Viking Orbiter images, mosaicked in an orthographic projection at a scale of 1 kilometer per pixel. The images were acquired in 1980 during late northern summer on Mars. The mosaic covers the region from latitude -70 degrees to 50 degrees and longitude 260 degrees to 360 degrees. The bright white region near the bottom of the image is due to carbon dioxide frost in the Hellas impact basin, which is about 2,000 kilometers in diameter. The bright yellow region at the top is Arabia.This digital mosaic was produced by Jody Swann using the Planetary Image Cartography System (PICS) image-processing system developed at the U.S. Geological Survey in Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>This mosaic is composed of about 100 red and violet filter Viking Orbiter images, digitally mosaiced in an orthographic projection at a scale of 1 kilometer per pixel. The images were acquired' in 1980 during mid-northern summer on Mars. The center of this image is near the impact crater Schiaparelli (latitude -3 degrees, longitude 343 degrees). The limits of this mosaic are approximately latitude -60 degrees to 60 degrees and longitude 280 degrees by 30 degrees. The color variations have been enhanced by a factor of two, and the large-scale brightness variations (mostly due to sun-angle variations) have been normalized by large-scale filtering.The large circular area with a bright yellow color (in this rendition) is known as Arabia. The boundary between the ancient, heavily-cratered southern highlands and the younger northern plains occurs far to the north (latitude 40 degrees) on this side of the planet, just north of Arabia. The dark streaks with bright margins emanating from craters in the Oxia Palus region (to the left of Arabia) are caused by erosion and/or deposition by the wind. The dark blue area on the far right, called Syrtis Major Planum, is a low-relief volcanic shield of probable basaltic composition. Bright white areas to the south, including the Hellas impact basin at the lower right, are covered by carbon dioxide frost.This digital mosaic was produced by Jody Swann using the Planetary Image Cartography System (PICS) image-processing system developed at the U.S. Geological Survey in Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>Viking photographs a Martian dust storm. In this picture from Viking Orbiter 2, a turbulent, bright dust cloud (arrow) more than 300 kilometers (186 miles) across can be seen inside the great Argyre Basin.It is apparently moving eastward under the influence of strong winds that also create condense lee-wave clouds to the west of the basin. This is the first color picture of a dust storm taken from a spacecraft orbiting the planet. Large depressions like Argyre and Hellas seem to be favored locations for the formation of dust storms. Later this year, when Mars comes closest to the Sun, a local dust storm like this may spread violently and cover most of the planet. A global dust storm delayed the start of Mariner 9's mapping mission in 1971. Although Viking scientists do not welcome the likely interruption of the mapping from orbit, the possibility of studying a global dust storm from its beginning is recognized as an unusually interesting phenomenon. The great Argyre Basin in the southern hemisphere of Mars is one of several enormous depressions created by the impact of large asteroids early in the planet's history. Previous Viking images and infrared data have shone that during winter the floor of Argyre is covered with carbon dioxide frost -- the edge of the south polar ice cap. In this view of the region, at the end of southern winter, the bright polar cap covers only the southern half of Argyre -- the cap has begun to retreat. In a few places among the mountains surrounding the basin the ice can be seen as white. Elsewhere the polar cap has a golden hue. Surface dust, apparently suspended in the atmosphere, filters the light from the cap and scatters light from the sun.</text>
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<text>(B&W picture)Viking photographs a Martian dust storm. In this picture from Viking Orbiter 2, a turbulent, bright dust cloud (arrow) more than 300 kilometers (186 miles) across can be seen inside the great Argyre Basin. It is apparently moving eastward under the influence of strong winds. Large depressions like Argyre and Hellas seem to be favored locations for formation of dust storms. Later this year, when Mars comes closest to the Sun, a local dust storm like this one may spread violently and cover most of the planet. A global dust storm delayed the start of Mariner 9's mapping mission in 1971. Although Viking scientists do not welcome the likely interruption of their mapping from orbit, the possibility-of studying a global dust storm from its beginning is recognized as an unusually interesting phenomenon. The great Argyre Basin in the southern hemisphere of Mars is one of several enormous depressions created by the impact of large asteroids early in the planet's history. Previous Viking images and infrared data have shown that during winter the floor of Argyre is covered with carbon dioxide frost -- the south polar ice cap.</text>
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<text>Shown here is a synthetic oblique view from the south of landslides in Ophir Chasm. Three large landslide slump scarps 4 to 5 kilometers high appear in the center of the scene. The volume of the landslide debris is more than 1,000 times greater than that from the May 18, 1980 debris avalanche from Mount St. Helen's volcano. The longitudinal grooves seen in the foreground are thought to be the result of differential shear and lateral spreading at high velocities.The point-perspective view was produced by using two data sets. a digital mosaic of the area and a digital elevation model produced from a 1/500,000 scale typographic map (courtesy of Ray Jordan and Sherman Wu, U.S. Geological Survey). There is no vertical exaggeration. Image-processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>Shown in this set of three images are synthetic oblique views of landslides in Ophir Chasm, looking from the south, east and west with the observer located 25 degrees above the horizon. Vertical exaggeration two times. Three large landslide slump scarps 4-to-5 kilometers high appear in the center of the scene and part of the fourth slump scarp is visible at the extreme east margin.The volume of the landslide debris is more than 1,000 times greater than that from the May 18, 1980 debris avalanche from Mount St. Helens volcano. The longitudinal grooves seen in the foreground are thought to be the result of differential shear and lateral spreading at high velocities.Oblique view was produced by orthographic rotation using two data sets: a digital mosaic of the area and a digital elevation model produced from a 1/500,000 scale topographic map (courtesy of Ray Jordan and Sherman Wu, U.S. Geological Survey). Image processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>Central Valles Marineris showing Candor Mensa, Baetis Mensa and landslides from the North. Exaggeration is two times.</text>
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<text>Central Valles Marineris showing Candor Mensa, Baetis Mensa and landslides from the East. Exaggeration is two times.</text>
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<text>Central Valles Marineris showing Candor Mensa, Baetis Mensa and landslides from the West. Exaggeration is two times.</text>
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<text>Central Valles Marineris showing Candor Mensa, Baetis Mensa and landslides from the South. Exaggeration is two times.</text>
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<text>Central Valles Marineris showing Candor Mensa, Baetis Mensa and landslides from the South. Exaggeration is two times.</text>
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<text>Taken by Viking Orbiter 2 as it approached the dawn side of Mars, in early August 1976, this photo shows the results of computer enhancement. At the top, with water ice cloud plumes on its western flank, is Ascreaus Mons, one of the giant Martian volcanos. In the middle is the great rift canyon called Valles Marineris, and near the bottom is the large, frosty, crater basin called Argyre. The south pole is at the bottom.</text>
<text>This mosaic is composed of 102 Viking Orbiter images of Mars, covering nearly a full hemisphere of the planet. The center of the scene shows the entire Valles Marineris canyon system, more than 2,000 kilometers long and up to 8 kilometers deep, extending from Noctic Labyrinthus, the arcuate system of graben to the west, to the chaotic terrain to the east. Many huge, ancient river channels begin to form the chaotic terrain and north-central canyons that run north. Many of the channels flowed into a basin called Acidalia Planitia, which is the dark area in the extreme north of this picture. The three Tharsis volcanoes (dark red spot) near Valles Marineris represent very ancient terrain covered by many impact craters.Image-processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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card_12450.xml
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<text>This mosaic is composed of 102 Viking Orbiter images of Mars, covering nearly a full hemisphere of the planet. The center of the scene shows the entire Valles Marineris canyon system, more than 2,000 kilometers long and up to 8 kilometers deep, extending from Noctic Labyrinthus, the arcuate system of graben to the west, to the chaotic terrain to the east. Many huge, ancient river channels begin to form the chaotic terrain and north-central canyons that run north. Many of the channels flowed into a basin called Acidalia Planitia, which is the dark area in the extreme north of this picture. The three Tharsis volcanoes (dark red spot) near Valles Marineris represent very ancient terrain covered by many impact craters.Image-processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>Shown here is a digital mosaic of Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the solar system. It is 27 kilometers high, more than 600 kilometers at the base, and is surrounded by a well-defined scarp that is up to 6 kilometers high.Lava floes drape over the scarp in places. Much of the plains surrounding the volcano are covered by the ridged and grooved "aureole" of Olympus Mons. The origin of the aureole is controversial, but may be related to gravity sliding off of the flanks of an ancestral volcano.The summit Caldera (central depression) is almost 3 kilometers deep and 25 kilometers across. It was probably formed from recurrent collapses following drainage of magma resulting from flank eruptions.This image was produced by merging the Mars medium resolution Digital Image Model with low-resolution color observations at the U.S. Geological Survey in Flagstaff, Arizona. Image-processing was done by Annie Allison and Alfred McEwen.</text>
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<text>The Mars Orbiter will be a polar-orbiting spacecraft at Mars whose mission is to fulfill the Mars science objectives of the failed Mars Observer mission. Launched with a Delta II vehicle from Cape Canaveral in November 1996, the spacecraft will cruise 10 months to Mars, where it will be initially inserted into an elliptical capture orbit. During the following 4-month period, thruster firings and aerobraking techniques will be used to reach the nearly circular, polar mapping orbit with a 2-hour period. Mapping operations are planned to begin in late January 1998.The spacecraft will carry a subset of the Mars Observer instrument payload and will use these instruments to acquire data of Mars for a full Martian year (2 Earth years). The spacecraft then will be used as a data relay station for signals from U.S. and international landers and low altitude probes for an additional 3 years. The orbiter is the first mission of a new, decade-long program of robotic exploration of Mars -- the Mars Surveyor Program.Landers launched in future years -- in 1998 and 2001 -- will capitalize on the experiences of the Pathfinder lander mission to be launched in 1996. Small orbiters launched in the 1998 and 2001 opportunities will carry the remainder of the Mars Observer payload instruments and will serve as data relay stations.In addition to the United States' Mars Surveyor, other countries also have planned missions to Mars. The former Soviet Union had designed two missions, Mars 94 and Mars 96 to study the planet and its moon Phobos. The design of these spacecraft is similar to the Phobos craft launched in 1988. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, the future of these missions is uncertain. However, both France and Germany have contributed funds for Mars 94 to help cover the cost of hardware and data analysis. Mars 94 hopefully will be launched in October, 1994, arriving at Mars the following September. It will enter into a 12 hour orbit around the planet in order to map its surface. Mars 96 will include not only an orbiter, but also a French-made balloon to carry instruments through the Martian atmosphere, a rover to image the surface as well as analyze soil samples, and two small autonomous data acquisition stations released to different areas of the planet. It will be launched in November 1996 if plans do not change.</text>
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<text>In this artist's rendition, the MESUR-Pathfinder space vehicle enters the Martian atmosphere and descends to the surface of the planet. After completing the 11-month journey from Earth to Mars and establishing the proper orientation for entry into the Martian atmosphere, the cruise stage containing the equipment used to guide it to Mars is separated from the aeroshell carrying the Pathfinder lander and microrover. The aeroshell enters the atmosphere at a velocity of approximately 6,300 meters per second (14,000 miles per hour). Atmospheric drag resulting from the friction of the aeroshell in the atmosphere causes intense heating of the aeroshell and decelerates the vehicle to approximately 400 meters per second (900 miles per hour) prior to deployment of the parachute. A single parachute is deployed at approximately 10,000 meters (six miles) altitude and separates the lander from the forward portion of the aeroshell which has now been charred by the intense heating. The parachute slows the lander to a velocity of 35 meters per second (78 miles per hour) prior to surface impact.</text>
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<text>This artist's rendition shows the descent of the MESUR-Pathfinder through the Martian atmosphere. The lander is unreeled on a 100-meter tether below the parachute to reduce the probability that the parachute will cover the lander after touchdown. One second prior to surface impact a set of four airbags (each is attached to a face of the lander and is comprised of three spherical lobes) is inflated using compressed gas. At surface impact, the tether to the parachute is released and the parachute is carried from the lander by the prevailing winds. The airbags deflate to keep the touchdown shock (the heaviest force the lander will be subjected to) below approximately 50 g's, or 50 times the force of Earth's gravity, as the lander tumbles and slows to a stop at the surface. The three petals on the lander open to establish an upright landing configuration, expose the solar arrays for surface operations and to provide the microrover and other instruments access to the Martian surface.</text>
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<text>After landing and opening of the petals, the Pathfinder lander transmits to Earth key data collected during the entry, descent and landing phases on the performance of the lander systems and the surrounding environment. These data will provide a better understanding of the Martian atmosphere as well as verification that the aeroshell, parachute, airbags and petals all did their job properly. In this artist's rendition, the open petals are covered with solar cells to provide electrical power for the surface operations and survival of the lander in the Martian environment. The gold thermal blanket protects the computer, transmitter and other lander electronics from the temperature extremes typical on Mars. The lander camera photographs the surrounding terrain. After examination of the first returned pictures on Earth, commands are sent which direct the microrover to drive off the lander petal onto the Martian surface. The microrover is then a free-roving vehicle with its own camera system for navigation and science investigations and is reliant on the Pathfinder lander only for communications to and from Earth. The microrover conducts technology experiments important to the design of future Mars roving vehicles. In addition, the microrover places a spectrometer against Martian rocks and surface materials to determine their elemental composition.</text>
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<text>Tooth, a prototype for a microrover, demonstrates a concept for very small planetary rovers that use less computational power and have less internal complexity than more traditional types of intelligent robots. Due to the small size and limited computer capacity, they cannot be programmed to traverse long distances. But they can be programmed to search for target minerals or soil, and pickup and return samples to a lander. Microrovers also can be programmed to avoid hazards. Tooth is one of several types of small robotic vehicles under development at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It is 30 centimeters (11.7 inches) long, 20 centimeters (7.8 inches) wide and 15 centimeters (5.8 inches) high.</text>
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<text>The Space Automation and Robotics Program is a major technological thrust at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It is a technology that has been critical to the success of a long series of missions for planetary observation and exploration. The concepts stretch into the realm of highly instrumented automated vehicles for planetary surface exploration in future NASA missions. In taking this approach, JPL will rely upon machines to perform low-level functions and detail management, while relying on humans to handle difficult situations and provide overall guidance.Rocky IV is a prototype for a robotic planetary exploration vehicle. It contains a color camera, a scoop to take soil samples and a chipper to examine the weathered covering of rocks, seen extended toward the rock in this photo. The rover can place a seismometer on the surface. Rocky IV is smaller and lighter than its predecessor, Rocky III, also a prototype for the study of planetary rovers. Rocky IV is 61.5 centimeters (24 inches) long, 38.4 centimeters (15 inches) wide and 36 centimeters (14 inches) high. Rocky IV weighs 7.5 kilograms (16.5 pounds) compared with Rocky III's 25.4 kilograms (56 pounds). Rocky IV is the latest in a family of robotic vehicles identified by a unique suspension system which uses no springs. The suspension is called "rockerbogey," and is connected by a differential between the left and right sides which can operate independently of each other. Also, each stainless steel wheel has a motor in its hub.</text>
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<text>The Bullwinkle microrover has been developed for the demonstration of long range, extended mission operation of a planetary rover. Using onboard solar panels and rechargeable batteries, Bullwinkle can operate indefinitely for several hours per day performing science missions or traversing large distances. Bullwinkle is capable of operating in either a teleoperation mode with a remote controller, an autonomous mode or a combination of both. In the autonomous mode, Bullwinkle traverses terrain and voids obstacles by using a simple navigation concept called "behavior control". In the teleoperated mode a Macintosh Powerbook, a laptop computer, provides a graphics control interface for the human controller while remote video is displayed on a small TV monitor.Bullwinkle weighs 10 kilograms (22 pounds) and is 56.4 centimeters (22 inches) long by 35.8 centimeters (14 inches) wide. Currently, Bullwinkle's sensor package includes body pitch and roll sensors, an electronic compass, wheel encoders and body articulation sensors. Actuators include 6 drive motors, 4 steering motors and a pan/tilt head for a small video camera. In addition, Bullwinkle is equipped with a radio frequency modern for external communication and a radio frequency video transmitter for remote teleoperation. The control electronics consist of three Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller boards.</text>
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<text>Rocky III, a prototype for a robotic planetary exploration vehicle, demonstrates ability to go over rough terrain and pickup rock or soil samples with its manipulator arm. Rocky is radio controlled and carries a video camera for real-time transmission. Rocky III, measuring 24 inches long by 20 inches wide by 16 inches high, is a 56-pound prototype for a much-lighter robotic rover that may be sent to the moon or Mars in a future NASA mission. Rocky III was designed and built at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.</text>
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<text>This mini-rover, called "Go-For", is an articulated four wheeled vehicle with the ability to change the weight distribution between the front and rear wheels to adapt to different terrain conditions. Each pair of wheels are mounted to "forks" which can continuously rotate about the body. The vehicle also can right itself if tipped over or upside down. Go-For weighs 3.5 kilograms (8 pounds), and is 40 centimeters (16 inches) long and high in its normal cruise posture.</text>
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<text> The Mars Observer spacecraft was to be the first U.S. spacecraft to study Mars since the Viking missions 18 years ago. However, the Mars Observer spacecraft fell silent on August 21,1993, just 3 days prior to entering orbit around Mars, following the pressurization of the rocket thruster fuel tanks. Mars Observer had turned off its transmitter as aprecautionary measure to protect the transmitter tubes from shockjust before it pressurized its onboard propellant tanks on August21, 1993. Three days later the spacecraft was due to fire its mainengines to place it in orbit around Mars. At the end of the tank pressurization, Mars Observer wassupposed to turn its transmitter back on. Ground controllers,however, never received a signal. After conducting extensive analyses, the board reported that the most probable cause of the loss of communications with the spacecraft was a rupture of the fuel (monomethyl hydrazine (MMH)) pressurization side of the spacecraft's propulsion system, resulting in a pressurized leak of both helium gas and liquid MMH under the spacecraft's thermal blanket. The gas and liquid would most likely have leaked out from under the blanket in an unsymmetrical manner, resulting in a net spin rate. This high spin rate would cause the spacecraft to enter into the "contingency mode," which interrupted the stored command sequence and thus, did not turn the transmitter on.</text>
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<text> The Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) will position and rotate the Mars Observer spacecraft, then separate, sending Mars Observer on its way to Mars.</text>
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<text>The Mars Observer spacecraft as it would appear in mapping orbit around Mars.</text>
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<text>Photograph of the planet Mars taken at 8:52 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time on July 26 by the high resolution, narrow-angle telescope of the Mars Observer Camera. At that time, the Mars Observer spacecraft was 5.8 million kilometers (3.6 million miles) and 28 days from its encounter with Mars. The resolution in this image is approximately 21.5 km (13.4 mi) per picture element and Mars, roughly 6800 km (4200 miles) in diameter, is about 315 picture elements across. North is to the top of the image; the south pole is near the bottom but in shadow. The sunrise line (terminator) stretches across the morning hemisphere from lower right to upper left. At this distance from Mars, only bright and dark markings resulting from variations in the amount and thickness of dust and sand are visible. Toward the bottom of the picture is a bright, roughly circular area called Hellas, an impact basin 2000 km (1250 ml) across. The dark area in the center of the frame is Syrtis Major, a region of volcanic plains and dark sand dunes. At the top of the photograph is Nilosyrtis, an area of buttes, mesas and box canyons reminiscent of the deserts of the southwest United States. Launched on Sept. 25, 1992, Mars Observer will enter Mars orbit on Tuesday, Aug. 24, at about 1:30 p.m. PDT. In-orbit engineering checkout of the camera is scheduled to begin Sept. 16. The camera and six other investigations begin mapping operations from a circular orbit just 400 km (248 mi) above the surface on Dec. 16. The Mars Observer Camera was developed by and is operated under contract to Jet Propulsion Laboratory by an industry/university team led by Malin Space Science Systems, San Diego, Calif.</text>
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<text>Mars Observer will use the expendable commercial Titan III launch vehicle. In September l992, a Titan III will carry Mars Observer and its booster into Earth orbit. From there, the Transfer Orbit Stage will boost the spacecraft into an interplanetary orbit leading to Mars.After an ll-month cruise, Mars Observer will arrive at the red planet and be placed in a large elliptical orbit. Then the orbit will be carefully adjusted through several intermediate steps, taking several months, until the spacecraft circles above Mars about every two hours. This mapping orbit will be sun-synchronized, so that sunlight will be at the same angle (early afternoon directly below the spacecraft) on the day side throughout the mission.The scientific mission will last for one Martian year (almost 669 Mars days, or 687 Earth days). This will allow Mars Observer to examine the planet through the four seasons.</text>
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<text>The Mars Observer spacecraft carries seven scientific instruments:The Gamma Ray Spectrometer to determine the chemical elements present on and near the surface of Mars;The Mars Observer Camera to provide daily global maps of the planet's surface over the four seasons of the Martian year;The Thermal Emission Spectrometer to measure infrared thermal radiation emitted from the Martian atmosphere and surface and to investigate the waxing and waning of the Martian polar caps;The Pressure Modulator Infrared Radiometer to record the structure and dynamics of the tenuous Martian atmosphere and provide high vertical-resolution profiles;The Mars Observer Laser Altimeter to study the topography of Mars;The Radio Science investigation, using the spacecraft's own telecommunications antenna, to determine the structure, pressure and temperature of the atmosphere;The Magnetometer and Electron Reflectometer to measure the planet's magnetic field;An eighth instrument, the receiver/transmitter, was supplied by the French National Center for Space Sciences (CNES) to support a Russian balloon relay mission in 1996.</text>
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<text>Line drawing of the Titan III launch vehicle with the Mars Observer spacecraft and Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) in place. At launch, after stage 1 of the Titan is exhausted, stage 2 will carry the TOS and the spacecraft into low Earth orbit.</text>
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<text>The Mars Observer spacecraft was shipped from General Electric's Astro-Space Division in Princeton, New Jersey, to JPL's Hangar AO at Kennedy Space Center in mid-June. There, it underwent final checkout and testing before it was mated to the Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) booster and stacked atop the Titan III launch vehicle.</text>
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<text>The fully assembled Mars Observer spacecraft is mated to a transportation dolly for shipment to the dynamic testing facility at General Electric in Princeton, New Jersey.</text>
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<text>Technicians at the Kennedy Space Center Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility inspect the Mars Observer spacecraft before it was attached to the Transfer Orbit Stage booster. The spacecraft's seven science instruments are located on top of the craft, with the Mars Observer Camera standing prominently in the center directly in front of the technician on the ladder.</text>
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<text>The Mars Observer launch sequence will begin with liftoff and separation of the solid rocket boosters about two minutes after launch. The payload fairing will be jettisoned nearly four minutes after launch, followed by separation of the Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS)/Mars Observer spacecraft combination. Once the TOS ignition/burn has occurred, Mars Observer will separate and be on its way to Mars.</text>
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<text>Photographs from the landers and orbiters surpassed expectations in quality and quality. The total exceeded 4,500 from the landers and 52,000 from the orbiters. The landers provided the first close-up look at the surface, monitored variations in atmospheric opacity over several Martian years, and determined the mean size of the atmospheric aerosols. The orbiter cameras observed new and often puzzling terrain and provided clearer detail on known features, including some color and stereo observations. Viking's orbiters mapped 97 percent of the Martian surface. In addition to the surface photographs, the landers performed three biology experiments which discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in soil near the landing sites.The landers' gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer instruments found no sign of organic chemistry at either landing site, but they did provide a precise and definitive analysis of the composition of the Martian atmosphere and found previously undetected trace elements. The X-ray fluorescence spectrometers measured elemental composition of the Martian soil.The two landers continuously monitored weather at the landing sites. Weather in the Martian midsummer was repetitious, but in other seasons it became variable and more interesting. Cyclic variations appeared in weather patterns (probably the passage of alternating cyclones and anticyclones). Atmospheric temperatures at the southern landing site (Viking Lander 1) were as high as -14 degrees C (+7 degrees F) at midday, and the predawn summer temperature was -77 degrees C (-107 F). In contrast, the diurnal temperatures at the northern landing site (Viking Lander 2) during midwinter dust storms varied as little as 4 degrees C (7 degrees F) on some days. The lowest predawn temperature was -120 degrees C (-184 F), about the frost point of carbon dioxide. A thin layer of water frost covered the ground around Viking Lander 2 each winter. </text>
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<text>Photographs from the landers and orbiters surpassed expectations in quality and quality. The total exceeded 4,500 from the landers and 52,000 from the orbiters. The landers provided the first close-up look at the surface, monitored variations in atmospheric opacity over several Martian years, and determined the mean size of the atmospheric aerosols. The orbiter cameras observed new and often puzzling terrain and provided clearer detail on known features, including some color and stereo observations. Viking's orbiters mapped 97 percent of the Martian surface. In addition to the surface photographs, the landers performed three biology experiments which discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in soil near the landing sites.The landers' gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer instruments found no sign of organic chemistry at either landing site, but they did provide a precise and definitive analysis of the composition of the Martian atmosphere and found previously undetected trace elements. The X-ray fluorescence spectrometers measured elemental composition of the Martian soil.The two landers continuously monitored weather at the landing sites. Weather in the Martian midsummer was repetitious, but in other seasons it became variable and more interesting. Cyclic variations appeared in weather patterns (probably the passage of alternating cyclones and anticyclones). Atmospheric temperatures at the southern landing site (Viking Lander 1) were as high as -14 degrees C (+7 degrees F) at midday, and the predawn summer temperature was -77 degrees C (-107 F). In contrast, the diurnal temperatures at the northern landing site (Viking Lander 2) during midwinter dust storms varied as little as 4 degrees C (7 degrees F) on some days. The lowest predawn temperature was -120 degrees C (-184 F), about the frost point of carbon dioxide. A thin layer of water frost covered the ground around Viking Lander 2 each winter. </text>
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<text>Dune material covers many impact craters and hummocks on the Martian surface in the region where Viking 2 will land today. The targeted landing point -- at about 48 N. Lat., 226 W. Long., in an area named Utopia, is near the center of this Viking Orbiter 2 photo taken from a range of about 3300 kilometers (2050 miles). The wind-blown deposits shown in this computer-enhanced picture as fine parallel lines extending from north to south (top to bottom). The dunes are about 250 maters (750 feet) crest to crest and 10 to 20 maters (30 to 60 feet) high.The dunes are thick enough to cover most of the blocks thrown from impact craters. A few young craters may dig up blocks buried in the dunes and throw them onto the surface. This picture was specially processed by computer at the JPL Image Processing Laboratory.</text>
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<text>Taken by Viking Orbiter 2 as it approached the dawn side of Mars, in early August 1976, this photo shows the results of computer enhancement. At the top, with water ice cloud plumes on its western flank, is Ascreaus Mons, one of the giant Martian volcanos. In the middle is the great rift canyon called Valles Marineris, and near the bottom is the large, frosty, crater basin called Argyre. The south pole is at the bottom.</text>
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<text>The great Martian volcano, Olympus Mons, was photographed by the Viking 1 Orbiter on July 31 from a distance of 8000 kilometers (5000 miles). The 24-kilometer-high (15 miles) mountain is seen in mid-morning, wreathed in clouds that extend up the flanks to an altitude of about 19 kilometers (12 miles). The multi-ringed caldera (volcanic crater), some 80 kilometers (50 miles) across, pushes up into the stratosphere and appears cloud-free at this time. The cloud cover is most intense on the Jar western side of the mountain. A well-defined wave cloud train extends several hundred miles beyond the mountain (upper left). The planer's limb can be seen at upper left corner. It also shows extensive stratified hazes. The clouds are thought to be composed principally of water ice condensed from the atmosphere as it cools while moving up the slopes of the volcano. In the Martian afternoon, the clouds develop sufficiently to be seen from Earth, and it is known that they are a .seasonal phenomenon largely limited to spring and summer in the northern hemisphere. Olympus Mons is about 600 kilometers (375 miles) across at the base and would extend from San Francisco to Los Angeles.</text>
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<text>Two pictures taken a half-hour apart by the Viking 1 Orbiter show the development on Mars of early morning fog in low spots, such as crater and channel bottoms (see arrows on picture at right). Scene at left was photographed shortly after Martian dawn on July 24 from 12,400 kilometers (7700 miles) and, at right, 30 minutes later from 9800 kilometers (6100 miles). Slight warming of the sub-zero surface by the rising sun evidently has driven off a small amount of water vapor which has recondensed in the colder air just above the surface. Brightness measurements of the resulting fog patches indicate that a film of water about one micrometer (one-millionth of a meter) thick has condensed.. These fog patches are the first direct visible evidence as to where the exchange of water between the Martian surface and atmosphere is actually occurring.</text>
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<text> Viking was the culmination of a series of missions to explore the planet Mars; they began in 1964 with Mariner 4, and continued with the Mariner 6 and 7 flybys in 1969, and the Mariner 9 orbital mission in 1971 and 1972.   Viking was designed to orbit Mars and to land and operate on the planet's surface. Two identical spacecraft, each consisting of a lander and an orbiter, were built.  The Viking mission was planned to continue for 90 days after landing. Each orbiter and lander operated far beyond its design lifetime. Viking Orbiter 1 exceeded four years of active flight operations in Mars orbit.  The three biology experiments discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in soil near the landing sites. According to mission biologists, Mars is self-sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature of the soil chemistry prevent the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil. The nquestion of life on Mars at some time in the distant past remains open.   The two landers continuously monitored weather at the landing sites. Weather in the Martian midsummer was repetitious, but in other seasons it became variable and more interesting. Cyclic variations appeared in weather patterns (probably the passage of alternating cyclones and anticyclones). Atmospheric temperatures at the southern landing site (Viking Lander 1) were as high as -14 degrees C (+7 degrees F) at midday, and the predawn summer temperature was -77 degrees C (-107 F). In contrast, the diurnal temperatures at the northern landing site (Viking Lander 2) during midwinter dust storms varied as little  as 4 degrees C (7 degrees F) on some days. The lowest predawn temperature was -120 degrees C (-184 F), about the frost point of carbon dioxide. A thin layer of water frost covered the ground around Viking Lander 2 each winter.</text>
<text>Mars 1: Launched November 1, 1962. Mars 1 was the first probe sent toward Mars; however all contact was lost on March 21, 1963, three months before it would have reached Mars.Mars 2: Launched May 19, 1971. When it reached the planet, Mars 2 released a lander which came down during a dust storm and was lost. The remainder of the spacecraft went into orbit around Mars and sent back information about the composition of the Martian atmosphere.Mars 3: Launched May 28, 1971. Similar in design to Mars 2, Mars 3 deployed a lander which failed minutes after reaching the surface.Mars 4: Launched July 21, 1973. Mars 5: Launched July 25, 1973. Mars 4 and 5, of the same design, returned very little data. A braking engine on Mars 4 did not fire, and the spacecraft flew by the planet without entering orbit. Mars 5 went into orbit, but stopped working after a few days.Mars 6: Launched August 5, 1973.Mars 7: Launched August 9, 1973. Mars 6 and 7 were landers meant to complement the Mars 4 and 5 orbiters, but they were no more successful in their mission. Mars 6 sent back information about the Martian atmosphere but its signals stopped just before landing; Mars 7 missed the planet entirely.Phobos 1: Launched July 5, 1988.Phobos 2: Launched July 12, 1988. Phobos 1 and 2 were designed to study Phobos, the larger of Mars' two moons. Contact with Phobos 1 was lost within two months because of a software problem. Phobos 2 carried two landers: one was to anchor itself to the moon, and the other was intended to hop along the moon's surface, gathering data as it traveled. However, all contact was lost with the surviving spacecraft as it neared Phobos. </text>
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<text><span class="style8"></span><span class="style5">Mariner 6 returned 75 black and white photos of Mars and Mariner 7 returned 126.Both spacecraft were built by JPL and weighed 850 lbs. </span></text>
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<text>Mariner 9 was launched May 30, 1971. It is the first man-made satellite to orbit another planet. The Mariner 9 mission was intended to last 90 days and map 70% of the Martian surface; however, the probe was operational for almost a year. During this time, Mariner 9 completed 698 revolutions about Mars and mapped almost all of its surface. Over 7000 TV images were returned, including pictures of both Phobos and Deimos. Mariner 9 was intended to have been one of a pair of Mars orbiters, but the Mariner 8 spacecraft failed before it even reached Earth orbit. Therefore, Mariner 9's mission was changed slightly in order to recover at least part of the data which Mariner 8 would have gathered. A planet-wide dust storm delayed the start of the mapping. The images which were returned showed many surprising surface features. They revealed huge volcanoes and calderas as well as the chasm Valles Marineris. In addition, potential Viking landing sites were surveyed.Though the spacecraft is no longer operational, it will probably remain in orbit for at least 50 years after the mission.</text>
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<text>Mariner 9 was launched May 30, 1971. It is the first man-made satellite to orbit another planet. The Mariner 9 mission was intended to last 90 days and map 70% of the Martian surface; however, the probe was operational for almost a year. During this time, Mariner 9 completed 698 revolutions about Mars and mapped almost all of its surface. Over 7000 TV images were returned, including pictures of both Phobos and Deimos. Mariner 9 was intended to have been one of a pair of Mars orbiters, but the Mariner 8 spacecraft failed before it even reached Earth orbit. Therefore, Mariner 9's mission was changed slightly in order to recover at least part of the data which Mariner 8 would have gathered. A planet-wide dust storm delayed the start of the mapping. The images which were returned showed many surprising surface features. They revealed huge volcanoes and calderas as well as the chasm Valles Marineris. In addition, potential Viking landing sites were surveyed.Though the spacecraft is no longer operational, it will probably remain in orbit for at least 50 years after the mission.</text>
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<text>Mariner 9 was launched May 30, 1971. It is the first man-made satellite to orbit another planet. The Mariner 9 mission was intended to last 90 days and map 70% of the Martian surface; however, the probe was operational for almost a year. During this time, Mariner 9 completed 698 revolutions about Mars and mapped almost all of its surface. Over 7000 TV images were returned, including pictures of both Phobos and Deimos. Mariner 9 was intended to have been one of a pair of Mars orbiters, but the Mariner 8 spacecraft failed before it even reached Earth orbit. Therefore, Mariner 9's mission was changed slightly in order to recover at least part of the data which Mariner 8 would have gathered. A planet-wide dust storm delayed the start of the mapping. The images which were returned showed many surprising surface features. They revealed huge volcanoes and calderas as well as the chasm Valles Marineris. In addition, potential Viking landing sites were surveyed.Though the spacecraft is no longer operational, it will probably remain in orbit for at least 50 years after the mission.</text>
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<text>Mariner 6: Launched February 24, 1969. The Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft were very similar. Mariner 6 began imaging Mars when it was still over a million miles from the planet. However, the most informative images were 24 pictures taken during the 68 minutes of closest approach. At the closest, on July 31, 1969, Mariner 4 was only 3412 km from the Martian surface.Mariner 7: Launched March 27, 1969. Mariner 7's battery exploded and partially damaged the craft a few days before reaching Mars, but communication was reestablished and the mission continued on power from the solar panels. After reaching Mars, Mariner 7 concentrated on imaging the South Polar region, returning 33 photographs during the 74 minute encounter. One of these images included Phobos in the background.</text>
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<text>Mariner 4: Launched November 28, 1964. After 228 days and 523 million miles of travel, Mariner 4 passed Mars at a distance of 9844 km. Mars is the first planetary surface which was imaged; Mariner 4 returned 21 images covering only 1% of the surface. These photographs showed craters and dry conditions quite unlike the surface of the Earth.</text>
<text><span class="style5">The Mariner 5 Venus spacecraft, for example, had originally been a backup for the Mariner 4 Mars flyby. The Mariner 10 spacecraft sent to Venus and Mercury used components left over from the Mariner 9 Mars Orbiter program.</span></text>
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<text>The first Mariner probe, Mariner 1, was launched July 22, 1962. Mariner 10, the final spacecraft of this series, was shut down March 24, 1975. Over the 13 years of the Mariner program, ten spacecraft provided invaluable information abut Mercury, Venus, and Mars. Only Mariner 10 visited Mercury, but Mariners 2, 5, and 10 explored Venus and Mariners 4, 6, 7, and 9 saw Mars. The other Mariners failed due to a variety of problems.The Mariner missions recorded scientific data and photographs of the planets, but they were also vital in preparing for further missions to the terrestrial planets.</text>
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<text>Of all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and 7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text> This picture of the Martian moon Deimos was taken Oct. 15, 1977, when Viking Orbiter 2 passed only 30 miles (50 kilometers) away. The picture covers 0.74 by 0.93 miles (1.2 by 1.5 kilometers) and shows features as snail as 10 feet (3 meters).Deimos is saturated with craters, but a layer of dust appears to cover craters smaller than 165 feet (50 meters), making Deimos look smoother than the other Martian moon Phobos. Boulders as large as houses -- 33 to 100 feet (10 to 30 meters) across -- are strewn across the face, probably blocks ejected from nearby craters.Viking Orbiter 2 was traveling 3,800 miles an hour (1.7 kilometers per second) relative to the moon when the picture was taken; spacecraft controllers slowed the camera platform one degree per second to reduce image smear.The spacecraft would have been clearly visible to an observer Standing on the surface of Deimos. It would have been easier to target for an impact of Deimos than to fly past at the desired point. Viking guest investigator Thomas Duxbury was in charge of the Deimos flyby. Cal Broom is manager of the Viking Project for the Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va.</text>
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<text>Phobos is the larger of Mars' two moons; it is also closer to the planet than is Deimos. Phobos is pitted by many small impact craters. Both Phobos and Deimos resemble C-type, or carbonaceous chondrite, asteroids. Thy are very dark and have albedos of only a few percent. The asteroids close to Mars are not as dark as the moons, leading to the hypothesis that both Phobos and Deimos were once asteroids which resided much farther from the Sun. Jupiter could have perturbed their orbits and Mars subsequently could have captured them as satellites.</text>
<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text>October 4, 1977JACK FROST VISITS UTOPIA -- Viking Lander 2, witnessing a gradual retreat of the frigid winter it has survived at its Martian landing site, Utopia Planitia, revealed fret for the first t in pictures taken in September. The frost was first seen in a black-and-white picture and was then imaged in color to produce this picture September 25, 1977. The view is to the rear and over the top of the top of the Lander toward the southeast; camera reference charts and the Lander's large, two-way Earth-communication antenna can be seen. The color difference between the white frost and the typically reddish-brown soil confirmed that the bright patches seen in the earlier black-and-white picture were produced by frost rather than by a change in surface soil features. The frost appears in patches generally associated with shadowed areas -- such as near rocks; the darker rocks in the scene vary in size from about 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 76 centimeters (30 inches). It is hoped that a continuing analysis of the pictures, in correlation with meteorological and Orbiter thermal data, will help Viking scientists to determine if the frost was routinely deposited during the cold nighttime hours -- to disappear each day as the sun caused it to sublimate, or if the frost was condensed as a heavier deposit that took many days to disappear. Nighttime temperatures reached a low of 160 Kelvin (-113 C, -171 F) and rose during the day to 175 Kelvin (-98 C, -144 F). Though extremely cold by Earth reference, such temperatures are too warm for a frost composed only of frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) which condenses on Mars at a temperature of approximately 151 Kelvin (-122C, -188 F). Preliminary analysis therefore supports the latter of the two possibilities that the frost has a longer than daily term, and strengthens the theory that it is more likely a carbon dioxide clathrate (composed of approximately six parts water to one part carbon dioxide).</text>
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<text>February 22, 1977Viking photographs a Martian dust storm. In this picture from Viking Orbiter 2, a turbulent, bright dust cloud (arrow) more than 300 kilometers (186 miles) across can be seen inside the great Argyre Basin. It is apparently moving eastward under the influence of strong winds. Large depressions like Argyre and Hellas seem to be favored locations for formation of dust storms. Later this year, when Mars comes closest to the Sun, a local dust storm like this one may spread violently and cover most of the planet. A global dust storm delayed the start of Mariner 9's mapping mission in 1971. Although Viking scientists do not welcome the likely interruption of their mapping from orbit, the possibility-of studying a global dust storm from its beginning is recognized as an unusually interesting phenomenon. The great Argyre Basin in the southern hemisphere of Mars is one of several enormous depressions created by the impact of large asteroids early in the planet's history. Previous Viking images and infrared data have shown that during winter the floor of Argyre is covered with carbon dioxide frost -- the south polar ice cap.</text>
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<text> Viking Lander 2, witnessing a gradual retreat of the frigid winter it has survived at its Martian landing site, Utopia Planitia, revealed frost for the first time in pictures taken in September. The frost was first seen in a black-and-white picture and was then imaged in color to produce this picture September 25, 1977. The view is to the rear and over the top of the top of the Lander toward the southeast; camera reference charts and the Lander's large, two-way Earth-communication antenna can be seen. The color difference between the white frost and the typically reddish-brown soil confirmed that the bright patches seen in the earlier black-and-white picture were produced by frost rather than by a change in surface soil features. The frost appears in patches generally associated with shadowed areas -- such as near rocks; the darker rocks in the scene vary in size from about 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 76 centimeters (30 inches). It is hoped that a continuing analysis of the pictures, in correlation with meteorological and Orbiter thermal data, will help Viking scientists to determine if the frost was routinely deposited during the cold nighttime hours -- to disappear each day as the sun caused it to sublimate, or if the frost was condensed as a heavier deposit that took many days to disappear. Nighttime temperatures reached a low of 160 Kelvin (-113 C, -171 F) and rose during the day to 175 Kelvin (-98 C, -144 F). Though extremely cold by Earth reference, such temperatures are too warm for a frost composed only of frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) which condenses on Mars at a temperature of approximately 151 Kelvin (-122C, -188 F). Preliminary analysis therefore supports the latter of the two possibilities that the frost has a longer than daily term, and strengthens the theory that it is more likely a carbon dioxide clathrate (composed of approximately six parts water to one part carbon dioxide).</text>
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<text>Viking orbiter 2 photographed this cold front in the Arctic region of Mars on March 24 (lower mosaic) and March 26, 1978. The season on Mars was equivalent to mid-May on Earth. During the two days, the front moved about 950 kilometers (590 miles), at an average speed of 20 kilometers (12 miles) an hour. The movement may be seen by comparing the two mosaics: lines connect identical features in the two sets of pictures. The spacecraft's rapid motion in orbit (about 2.44 kilometers per second or 5,400 miles an hour) results in slightly different scales between the mosaics. Weather systems like this appear to be common in Mars' northern hemisphere. Viking Lander 2 has detected the passage of similar fronts many times. Warm, comparatively moist air is lifted over a wedge of colder, denser air as it pushed south. Moisture in the warm air condenses into ice crystals,. forming clouds. Dust, seen frequently in Martian storms, could also be present in these clouds. Some water must be present, scientists say, since wave clouds seen in both mosaics result from condensation and evaporation of ice crystals in the troughs and crests of pressure waves propagating in the atmosphere.</text>
<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text>Operation of the surface sampler in obtaining Martian soil for Viking 2's molecular analysis experiment was closely monitored by one of the Lander cameras because of the precision required in trenching the small area --8 by 9 inches-- surrounded by rocks. Dubbed "Bonneville Salt Flats," the exposure of thin crust appeared unique in contrast with surrounding materials and became a prime target for organic analysis in spite of potential hazards. Large rock in foreground is 8. inches high. At left, the sampler scoop has touched the surface, missing the rock at upper left by a comfortable 6 inches, and the back hoe has penetrated the surface about one-half inch. The scoop was then pulled back to sample the desired point and (second photo) the back hoe furrowed the surface pulling a piece of thin crust toward the spacecraft. The initial touchdown and retraction sequence was used to avoid a collision between a rock in the shadow of the arm and a plate joining the arm and scoop. The rock was cleared by 2 to 3 inches. The third picture was taken 8 minutes after the scoop touched the surface and shows that the collector head has acquired a quantity of soil. With surface sampler withdrawn (right), the foot-log trench is seen between the rocks. The trench is three inches wide and about 1 1/2 to 2 inches deep. The scoop reached to within 3 inches of the rock at far end of trench. Penetration appears to have let a cavernous opening roofed by the crust and only about one inch of undisturbed crust separates the deformed surface and the rock.</text>
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<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text>As evidenced by the lack of heavily cratered terrain on Venus, much terrain was formed by volcanic activity after the period of intense bombardment by planetesimals early in the planet's history. Some studies suggest that up to 70% of the surface is volcanic in origin. Heat was and perhaps is released from Venus' interior by hot spot volcanism rather than the fissure flooding which caused lunar maria. Small shield volcanoes (up to 20 km in diameter) are common in the Venusian plains. They have been classified as volcanic rather than tectonic in origin because they have summit craters. Larger domes, which have calderas, are also thought to be volcanoes . Some of these structures are surrounded by flow-like features emanating from the summit. Most of these shield volcanoes are less than one kilometer high. However, some of the volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons and Elysium Mons, rise several kilometers above the rest of the surface of Mars. Olympus Mons is the largest volcano in the solar system; it is probably only 200 million years old. The caldera at the top is associated with the vent of the volcano. It could have resulted from a volcanic explosion.</text>
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<text>Olympus Mons, in the Tharsis region, is the largest volcano in the solar system. Over 500 km in diameter and 25 km in height, it dwarfs any mountains found on Earth. Although researchers believe Mars may still be volcanically active, Olympus Mons is at least 200 million years old. The caldera at the top is thought to have formed when the peak of the original volcanic cone collapsed.</text>
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<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text>East Mangala Valles This scene covers the boundary scarp between the ancient cratered highlands and the northern plains of Mars over an area east of Mangala Valles (latitude -7 to -3 degrees, longitude 146 degrees to 149 degrees). Ancient river channels run north through the ancient cratered highlands, but are covered north of the scarp by young lava floes. The large impact crater just north of the scarp shows floe-like ejecta lobes, which may form due to the presence of subsurface water or ice. Viking Orbiter picture numbers are: 455S09-17,456S13-20, 457S16-20. Image-processing was done by Alfred McEwen, U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.</text>
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<text>These photographs show hemisphere views of Mars with different features at the centers. Valles Marineris is a huge chasm on the surface near the equator of Mars. Cerberus is a dark area on the surface near the Elysium Planitis, just south of Elysium Mons. It also is near the Martian equator, opposite the planet from Valles Marineris.Schiaparelli is a fairly large crater northwest of the Hellas Planitia. The dark area in the upper right part of this view is the Hesperia Planum.Syrtis Major Planitia is also near the equator of Mars. It is a smooth, dark region of terrain.</text>
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<text>Unlike Earth, the Martian atmosphere has no ozone layer, which means the planet surface is fully-exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, the atmosphere is tenuous and cannot scatter the shorter wavelength radiation from the Sun (the phenomenon that makes the Earth's sky blue). As a result, the Martian sky is pink. On the whole, Mars is very cold. Temperatures at the equator range from a summer high of approximately 4∞F / -20∞C / 253° K in the afternoon to -168∞ F </text>
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<text>/ -111∞ C / 162∞ K just before sunrise. The large temperature gradient (plus the dominance of tidal circulation over planetary scale waves) causes frequent dust storms, which sometimes engulf the entire planet.Magnetic field and gravityMars has a very weak magnetic field. The surface gravity on the planet is 0.379.</text>
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<text>Orbit and rotationCompared with Earth, Mars has an eccentric orbit. Its period of revolution is 687 days.Moons (and/or rings)Mars has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos. Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Researchers believe that the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.Phobos is heavily cratered. The largest is crater, Stickney, is 10 </text>
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<text>km in diameter. Deimos is relatively smooth in comparison. It has no craters larger than 3 km) The two most prominent craters are named Swift and Voltair. Both satellites are covered with a thin layer of dust. MythologyIts blood-like color earned the planet the name Mars, for the Roman god of War. It's satellites, Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror), were named after mythical characters who drove the chariot of Mars. </text>
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<text>Discovery and explorationOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines cross-crossing the surface. These observations (later determined to be optical illusions) led to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. This belief was further propagated by the writings of Jules Verne in the late 1800's and </text>
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<text>by early 20th-century movies. Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during cooler periods.The planet has been heavily researched in modern times. In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe passed Mars at 10,000 km. Mariner 6 and </text>
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<text>7 passed by in 1969, and Mariner 9 orbited the planet from October 1971 - 1972. Based on photos returned by Mariner 9, researchers were able to create first reliable map of the Martian surface. In September 1975, NASA launched two Viking probes launched with the goal of landing one on each hemisphere of Mars. The landers reached Mars in June and August 1976 and both landings were successful. Initial test results on samples taken from surface seemed to indicate biological activity, but later tests confirmed that the activity was </text>
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<text>inorganic. Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth.</text>
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<text>The color image is a composite of three pictures taken by the Viking Orbiter 2 from an altitude of 24,370 kilometers (15,143 miles) on its 191st revolution of Mars. The three black-and-white pictures which make up the color composite represent red, green and violet filtered exposures.One lobe of the south polar cap is seen at left center. The two prominent craters at upper left are Rayleigh (left) and Burroughs. Burroughs crater is approximately 105 kilometers (65 miles) in diameter. The dark patches on the floors of the larger craters are believed to be sand dunes, although most of the other large and small craters in the picture do not appear to contain such deposits. The three, bright white patches at left center appear to be frost deposits on the summits of mountains. The wispy, white diagonal streaks in the crater at the far left are clouds, and the violet patches reflect compositional differences in the surface soils.</text>
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<text>Valles Marineris Hemisphere -- Point Perspective Mosaic of the Valles Marineris Hemisphere of Mars projected into point perspective, a view similar to that which one would see from a spacecraft. The distance is 2,500 kilometers from the surface of the plane, with the scale being 0.6 kilometers per pixel.The mosaic is composed of 102 Viking Orbiter images of Mars. The center of the scene (latitude -8, longitude 78) shows the entire Valles Marineris canyon system, more than 2,000 kilometers long and up to 8 kilometers deep, extending from Noctis Labyrinthus, the arc-like system of graben to the west, to the chaotic terrain in the east. Many huge, ancient river channels begin from the chaotic terrain and from north-central canyons running north. Many of the channels flowed into a basin called Acidalia Planitia, which is the dark area in the extreme north of this picture. The three Tharsis volcanoes (dark red spots), each about 25 kilometers high, are visible to the west. South of Valles Marineris is very ancient terrain covered by many impact craters.</text>
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<text>MarsPlanet statisticsDistance from the Sun: Maximum:154.5 million miles 249.1 million km 1.667 AU Minimum:128.5 million miles 206.7 million km 1.381 AU Mean: 141.5 million miles 227.9 million km 1.524 AUPeriod of revolution: 687.0 daysPeriod of rotation (equatorial): 24 hr. 37 min. 23 sec.Mean orbital velocity: 15 miles (24.1 km) per secondInclination of axis: 23.98 degreesOrbital eccentricity: 0.093Orbital inclination: 1.85 degreesDiameter at equator: 4,222 miles (6,794 km) 0.547 x EarthΓÇÖs diameterOblateness: 0.006Mass: 6.42 x 10^23 kg 0.107 x EarthΓÇÖs massVolume: 1.63 x 10^11 km^3 0.15 x EarthΓÇÖs volumeDensity: 3.94 g/cm^3 0.712 x EarthΓÇÖs densitySurface gravity: 3.72 m/s^2 0.38 x EarthΓÇÖs gravityEscape velocity: 3.2 miles (5.0 km) per secondMean surface temperature: -9 F / -23 C / 250 KMaximum apparent diameter as seen from Earth (seconds of arc): 25.7ΓÇ¥Albedo: 0.16Number of known satellites: 2Mean diameter of Sun as seen from the planet: 21' 00"</text>
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<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>tour</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock Screengo to card "T1"unlock Screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<name>Main Menu</name>
<script>on openCardlock screencolorizeHC "Add","PLANETS:MARS:UI_MAC:MARS.PIC"unlock screennoPaintWhitepalette "marMMenu", "0,417"end openCardon closeCardlock screencolorizeHC "colorFill" -- redraw previous screensunlock screenif there is a window "MARS211KHz Movie" then ¬close window "MARS211KHz Movie"noPaintWhiteif there is a window "marMMenu" then ¬close window "marMMenu"end closeCard</script>
 (1994).iso/pc/mars/mars.hc/BMAP_9795.png){kind=link}
 (1994).iso/pc/mars/mars.hc/PATs.png){kind=link}